Although the human head is often perceived as being round or egg-shaped, it is more like a cube or a three-dimensional rectangle. It has a distinct front, two sides, a top, and a back. A principle of art shows that when a cube is drawn, its shape is accented by making each plane have a different brightness (Guptill). This fact is often overlooked in portrait lighting. Contemporary lighting generally employs only two intensities to light the front and side planes of the head. One characteristic, however, that makes the head unlike a cube is that the front plane of the face is smaller than the overall thickness of the head. This adds two angular planes to the face. A three-quarter view reveals five planes (side, front, two angular, and top). It is necessary to light each of these major planes with a different intensity if the fundamental shape of the head is emphasized.

Another principle of art requires that a circle be shaded with a gradation of tones from a single direction to transform it into a three-dimensional sphere (Guptill). The larger the number of different values and the more even the progression, the greater the feeling of roundness.

Photographers sometimes underestimate the importance of a unified direction of light as the first step in achieving roundness. Those who use parabolic lights often misplace the fill light by positioning it on the opposite side of the lens from the highlight. This produces a shadow on the highlight side of the nose, interrupts the sequential spread of tones from highlight to shadow, and reduces roundness. Another commonly misplaced light source is the reflector. Placed opposite from the main direction of light where it reflects light back into the shadow, the only place it works, it introduces a higher light intensity onto the Shadow Side Plane than onto the Shadow Angular Plane. This contradicts the direction of light and reduces roundness. All light must come from a single direction if roundness is to be achieved.

A person's face is unique because of individual features. Each feature has its own particular shape and can be emphasized by varying the light intensities between each feature and its adjacent area. An off-camera light positioned above the lens produces a highlight on the top and one side of the feature and produces a shadow beneath and on the opposite side.

Based on these principles of art, I conclude that to achieve quality portraiture an optimum pattern of light, whether from small or large sources, requires positioning lights to achieve three objectives. First, each major plane of the face must be lighted to a different intensity to emphasize the fundamental shape of the head. Second, lights must increase in intensity from a single direction to accentuate roundness. Third, the main direction of light has to be positioned above and to one side of the lens to emphasize the shape of the individual facial features.

USING SMALL LIGHT SOURCES TO EMPHASIZE SHAPE AND ROUNDNESS

"Form Fill Lighting," introduced by Pete Nicastro in the 1970s, positions the fill light with the axis of the nose (Nicastro). With this method of lighting, no shadows are created that oppose roundness due to the symmetrical nature of the face: the nose is the highest point, is in the center, and each adjacent facial area steps to a lower level. This style of lighting used with a "Narrow" or "Rembrandt" light pattern defines the side planes of the head by placing them in a deeper shadow. This form of lighting creates a two-step fill, which both recognizes the major facial planes and helps create the feeling of roundness. Form Fill Lighting when used with a Broad lighting pattern does, however, conflict with a unified direction of light. So used, the cumulative effect of light causes the shadow on the Highlight Side Plane of the head to be lighted to a lower value than the diffused highlight on the Angular and Front Planes. This opposes a unified direction of light because it interrupts the sequential spread of light values from highlight to shadow and lessens the illusion of roundness recorded on the two-dimensional photographic paper.

In the 1960s a popular lighting style was "Wraparound Lighting." Instead of one modeling light, three modeling lights are used, each recording a slightly higher intensity and creating a step-up pattern of light. With this lighting style the modeling light that creates the highest intensity is positioned slightly behind the subject, beyond the point of reflection. Although it is of the same intensity as the other two modeling lights, its effect is dramatically stronger because its positioning creates a specular reflection.

SPECULAR LIGHT

Specular light is best understood when it is thought of as a mirrored image of a light source. The intensity of the light is increased because of this reflection. In a sense the specular light is "supercharged light" because it quantitatively reflects more light back than the actual quantity of light striking an object. The amount of specular reflection that is photographically recorded is greatly determined by the relative position of the subject and camera to the light source. The effect that the position of subject, camera and the light source has on the specular reflection can be understood with this example. When a Ping-Pong ball is dropped directly onto a table, it bounces back to a lower height than the height from which it is dropped. This reaction occurs because much of the energy is absorbed by the table as it reverses the direction of the ball. When the ball is bounced off the table and over the net, it deflects off of the table at exactly the same angle as it struck the table. A law of physics states that "the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection" (Taffel). The ball bounces further when deflected than when it is dropped because less energy is absorbed by the table. When the ball is skimmed off the surface of the table at a very low angle, it looses even less energy. photographic portraiture specular light behaves the same way. Like the deflecting Ping-Pong ball, less light energy is absorbed by the face as it changes the direction of the light. As the light is positioned further behind the subject, a still higher intensity is reflected because, like the Ping-Pong ball, even less light energy is lost. This phenomenon of light is explained in FARLEY'S LAW. This law states that as the angle of incidence becomes smaller, the quantity of reflected light is greater (Collins).

OPTIMUM SMALL SOURCE LIGHT PATTERN

An optimum light pattern composed of small light sources that accent major facial planes and emphasize the roundness of the face is created when aspects of "Form Fill" and "Wraparound" lighting are brought together and the accent light is positioned to form a specular reflection. Form Fill lighting achieves a two-step fill when the light (light A of illustrations 2) is placed perpendicular to the front plane of the face, leaving the side planes of the head in total shadow. Wraparound lighting (lights moved within the area marked B of illustration 2) raises the intensities of the Front Plane in two steps, creates the diffused highlight, and leaves the Shadow Angular Plane at a lower value. An Accent Light (light C of illustration 2) of the same intensity as the other modeling lights is positioned slightly behind the subject and registers an increased intensity on the Highlight Angular Plane by producing a specular reflection. A Separation Light (light D of illustrations 2) illuminates the Top Plane to a different intensity. This total pattern (illustration 3) creates slices of increasing light intensities from shadow to highlight, accents major facial planes, and emphasizes the roundness of the face, all of which are necessary for quality portraiture.

LARGE LIGHT SOURCES CHANGE LIGHT QUALITY

Small light sources produce sharply defined shadows. As the light source becomes larger, the transfer between highlight and shadow is spread over a wider area in proportion to the size of the light source. The larger the light source, the more gradated the transfer. The size of the light and its effect on light quality is relative to the distance between the subject and the source. A child leaning on a small kitchen windowsill will be illuminated by a light having the same characteristics as that of a family illuminated by a larger, more distant picture window.

Roundness is accentuated with a progression of light values from shadow to highlight (Guptill). With small light sources, the feeling of roundness is created by individual slices of light of increasing intensities. A better way to emphasize roundness is by using a large source of light. With a larger source of light, there is more progressive transfer from highlight to shadow and the feeling of roundness is more apparent.

The size of the light source also affects the intensity and quality of the specular light reflected off a face. A small light source creates a sharply defined specular reflection of high intensity. A large light source of the same intensity creates a specular reflection of lower intensity because the reflection is spread over a wider area. This creates a soft glow to the skin.

WALL OF LIGHT

A basic principle of art is that roundness is best achieved with a gradation of tones from a single direction of light (Guptill) I deduce that an optimum light pattern must, therefore, utilize a single large light source to best enhance the feeling of roundness. A law of physics explains how a large light source can be positioned to register both a diffused highlight and a specular reflection (Collins). Based on these factors, I conclude that an ultimate quality of light must be produced by a very large, single source of light.

I describe this optimum light source as a WALL OF LIGHT. In theoretical terms it is a source of light that extends in front of the subject to a point behind the camera. Because the light intensity decreases with the distance, a single progressive gradation of light is created from diffused highlight to shadow (illustration 4). The WALL OF LIGHT also continues in back of the subject, beyond the point of reflection. A higher intensity of light is recorded on the Angular and Side Planes of the face from a specular reflection. As the WALL OF LIGHT extends further behind the subject, the amount of specular reflection increases, as the angle of incidence becomes smaller. The large single source continues a gradation of light between the diffused highlight and specular reflection. A WALL OF LIGHT merges the optimum small light source pattern shown in illustrations 3, into a single pattern and an uninterrupted sequential spread of tones from shadow to diffused highlight to specular reflection (illustration 5). With small light sources the fundamental shape of the head is emphasized by lighting each major facial plane to a different intensity. A WALL OF LIGHT creates the same effect because each major facial plane is positioned at a different angle to the source. When the subject is placed in three-quarter view to the WALL OF LIGHT, the Highlighted Angular Plane receives the greatest light intensity because it is closest to the light source and angled to receive the full intensity of the light. The Front Plane is angled away from the WALL OF LIGHT, receiving only a percentage of the total light emitted from the source. The Shadow Angular Plane is angled even further away from the WALL OF LIGHT and the Shadow Side Plane is angled still further. Each plane thus receives proportionally less light. The WALL OF LIGHT extends behind the subject, beyond the point of reflection. As a result the intensity of the Highlight Angular Plane is further increased because of a specular reflection. The large light source creates a specular highlight as a soft glow to the skin.

A flat-surfaced model of a head showing the major facial planes was photographed with small light sources (illustration 6A), and a WALL OF LIGHT (illustration 6B). In both cases each major facial plane received a different light intensity. Unlike the model, the human head anatomically blends major facial planes with curved surfaces. In addition, to showing major facial planes a WALL OF LIGHT creates a sequential spread of tones which creates the illusion of roundness inherent to the human anatomy.

CHANGING TO A WALL OF LIGHT STYLE OF LIGHTING

A change from the traditional and contemporary styles of lighting to a WALL OF LIGHT style of lighting requires photographers to make two major changes in their attitude toward lighting. The traditional lighting patterns used to modify facial structure can be eliminated. Why? The single sequential progression of light from shadow to specular reflection actually blends all patterns from "Split" to "Loop" light. All that remains of the traditional light patterns is the basic understanding that the smaller an area of the face that is illuminated, the narrower it appears. The second major change that must be made is to move the subject and camera in relationship to, the stationary WALL OF LIGHT instead of moving the lights.

The effectiveness of a WALL OF LIGHT is dependent upon positioning the light source in back of the subject, beyond the point of reflection, to receive a specular reflection. Identifying the effect of small changes in the positions of the subject, camera, and light must be understood to assure a consistent degree of specularity.

To capture specularity, positioning the subject relative to the light source is accomplished in two ways. The first way is by moving the subject and camera parallel to the WALL OF LIGHT. When the subject is in position A of diagram 7-2, all of the WALL OF LIGHT is in front of the subject, and contrast exists only between the shadow and diffused highlight (illustration 7-1). When the subject is in position B (illustration 7-3) contrasts between the shadow, the diffused highlight, and the specular highlight are realized. This occurs because the light source extends in back of the subject beyond the point of reflection.

The second way to achieve increased specularity is by moving the subject and camera in a progressive arc so that the WALL OF LIGHT is positioned in back of the subject, beyond the point of reflection. Moving in a progressive arc produces the following effects. In position A (illustration 7-3) light qualities of only shadow and diffused highlight are realized. In position B (illustrations 7-3) a specular reflection is added to the diffused highlight because the light source extends beyond the point of reflection. Moving the subject and camera either parallel or in an arc relative to a WALL OF LIGHT brings the light further behind the subject. This movement increases the intensity of the specular reflection, as the angle of incidence becomes smaller.

There are many different situations in which a WALL OF LIGHT occurs naturally. A WALL OF LIGHT exists with window light (illustration 8A); light bouncing off a large, light-colored wall (illustration 8B); Subtractive light from a tree line (illustration 8C); and light from a large translucent panel (illustration 8D)

THE INCREASED COMPATIBILITY OF A WALL OF LIGHT WITH A LESS RESTRICTIVE PORTRAIT

Quality portraiture, although based upon a methodology of light, is also based upon the level of emotion and feeling that a photographer can elicit from a subject. For the first ten years of my photographic career I used parabolic lights in a light pattern which combined aspects of Form Fill and Wraparound lighting. Lights were placed two to four feet from the subject. Barn doors were adjusted and lights were feathered to a visual standard. This parabolic lighting style reduced the naturalness of the portrait session by creating a bubble of technical apparatus, which encapsulated both the subject and photographer. It also stifled emotional spontaneity in subjects because nearly the entire session was devoted to manipulating equipment.

During the next fifteen years I developed a style of portraiture that is based on minimizing the distracting technicalities of the photographic process. I now have subjects in an activity rather than posing. This approach elicits spontaneity, emotion, and the inner beauty of my subjects. A WALL OF LIGHT is especially compatible with this less restrictive portrait approach because it allows subjects to move freely within a large controlled space.

A WALL OF LIGHT is not a specific lighting devise. It is an understanding of light that can be applied in a many different situations. The following examples show the effectiveness of this lighting style to both bring out the shape and roundness of the face and to help capture feeling and emotion of my subjects. The flexibility of this lighting style is shown with environmental portraits that utilized a WALL OF LIGHT in the form of window light, bounce flash, subtractive light, and a translucent panel.

WINDOW LIGHT

The study "TOUCHING" (illustration 9) was a routine portrait that effectively demonstrates how a WALL OF LIGHT sets up a natural atmosphere that is conducive to capturing a sensitive moment. The subjects were photographed in the light of a 9'X12' north light window in the studio. An optimum large source light pattern was formed by placing the subjects at the center point of the window. This extended the light source behind the subject forming a specular reflection. Three 4'X8' white panels suspended from the ceiling were placed adjacent to the window extending the light in front of the subject. By positioning the subjects twelve feet from the light source, shadow ratio was reduced and the need for supplementary light was eliminated. As I finished changing film I witnessed and recorded a moment of profound beauty. The child touched his grandfather's hand and all of the subjects seemed immersed in their own worlds of thought. The natural feeling of the lighting further contributed to the sensitivity of the study.

Today, in place of reflectors I control shadow ratio by bouncing a strobe off the white wall behind the camera (illustration 10). I can achieve greater control of shadow ratio by synchronizing the flash exposure with the ambient exposures. Background and separation lights are controlled independently. At night the same effect is created by bouncing strobes off white drapes covering the window. The study, "AFTER THE PORTRAIT WAS TAKEN" (illustration 11), posed a different problem that was also solved with the use of window light. I wanted to capture the childlike personality of fellow photographer, Ruby Schaller. Ruby photographed children in his home studio using a painted background located in front of a large patio door. By rolling up this background, the light of the window formed an ideal WALL OF LIGHT. Ruby was positioned facing perpendicularly to the window and at its center. This allowed the window to extend both in front of and behind the subject creating a single progressive gradation of light from shadow to specular reflection. The ambient light intensity within the room was low and this caused excessive contrast. A strobe was bounced off the light colored wall behind the camera. Synchronizing the flash with the ambient light controlled the lighting ratio within the printing limitations of the paper.

By turning off Ruby's strobes and using only the window light, the children's faces were left in shadow. This focused attention entirely on the photographer. Ruby was kept a substantial distance from the light source in order to create a controlled space where subject movement did not significantly affect exposure or contrast. While Ruby went through his bag of tricks I photographed the dynamic interplay of personalities over a substantial period of time. Thus I was able to capture the real, child-like qualities of this photographer's personality.

BOUNCE FLASH

I have always enjoyed working with window light but a window is not always available in the right location. In the study "HOUSE CALLS

In other situations where a room has dark colored walls, white panels are leaned against the walls off which light is bounced. I find bounce flash to be less intimidating to subjects than umbrellas or soft boxes. The greater distance between the subject and the light source with bounce flash also increases the size of the controlled space. In a room where shadow ratio is too flat black scrims can be leaned against the light walls on the shadow side of the camera in order to subtract light and increase shadow ratio.

SUBTRACTIVE LIGHT

The space under the first line of trees near an open area is lighted by a natural WALL OF LIGHT. The overhanging branches prevent the light from coming straight down and forming deep shadows under the eyes. The wooded area on one side of the tree subtracts light from the light pattern. The open area opposite the woods produces a soft, flattering side light from the open area in front of the woods. Shadow ratio is controlled by changing the distance between the subject and the tree line. The degree of specularity is regulated by moving the subject and camera in a progressive arc relative to the stationery tree line. This manipulation positions the large light source both in front and back of the subject and creates a WALL OF LIGHT effect.

In the study, "MORNING SONG" (illustration 13) the controlled space was limitless as long as the distance between the subject and the tree line was maintained. The songwriter paddled up stream and then drifted back with the current, playing his guitar, and singing. The peaceful atmosphere of the setting and the free interaction of the subject with the environment contributed to the success of this study.

TRANSLUCENT PANEL

In a pre-portrait conference for the study "SPECIAL FRIENDS" (illustration 14) I discovered a special relationship between the subject his dog, Butch. He described how Butch traveled everywhere with him and how the dog rested its head on his shoulder while he drove. This closeness between a man and his dog inspired the portrait.

Photographing inside a pick-up truck created a lighting problem, which was best solved by using a translucent panel. A soft, flattering light source was created by interrupting the path of the direct sun with a 7'X7' translucent panel, and by photographing perpendicular to this source. Shadow ratio was controlled by changing the distance between the subject and the panel. The background was in the shade and metered two stops below the intensity of translucent light. The relationship between the subject and his dog was genuine and was easy to capture as long as I maintained the natural environment. A WALL OF LIGHT was the key element in attaining this sensitive portrait as it provided optimum lighting and did not impose any artificial qualities on the moment.

WHEN NO WALL OF LIGHT IS AVAILABLE

I can not always find a setting where the ideal lighting conditions of a WALL OF LIGHT exists. When this is so three options must be considered: do I compromise light quality for other aesthetic qualities; supplement existing light; or create an entirely new lighting effect? A compromise is never arbitrary. It is based upon the principles that govern lighting and art. For example, I do not hesitate to compromise specularity, the light quality that indirectly emphasizes depth, for a story-telling setting with a strong design. In this situation I use converging lines, selective focus, or a funneling effect of light to create the same illusion of depth with design elements instead of light. I do not hesitate to compromise the roundness of light for a dramatic lighting effect such as backlighting or fog, or for the emotional appeal of subjects intensely involved in an exciting activity. In the study "THE CROSSING" (illustration 15), the misty feeling surrounding this family crossing a stream on a rainy autumn day was chosen over a WALL OF LIGHT lighting effect. When a WALL OF LIGHT is not available and a weak direction of light is shown in a scene, I reinforce the implied light direction with strobe light. In the study "WINDOW ON THE WORLD" (illustration 16), a strobe was bounced off a white panel outside the window. This supplementary light produced a flash exposure similar in quality to natural light coming through the window. Shadow ratio was controlled by bouncing light off the wall and ceiling behind the camera. The flash exposure was synchronized with a low enough daylight level to make the light outside the window believable and still be within the printing limitations of the paper.

Many environmental settings exist with contradicting directions of light or no usable light at all. Locations may be selected because the backgrounds have story-telling characteristics or the subjects participate in an activity in that area. In these situations maximum control is achieved by creating an entirely new lighting effect, a new source of illumination, that appears simple, round and natural.

The setting in which the study "CHILDREN'S DELIGHT" (illustration 17) was photographed contained contradicting light directions that necessitated creating an entirely new lighting effect. Strobe light was bounced off a white panel in front of the clown creating a large light source of soft round light. The strobe and ambient light were synchronizing to control shadow ratio and reduce the intensity of the background. The distant location of the light source created a controlled space, which allowed the clown to perform freely for the children and for the spontaneity of the children to be captured.

SUMMARY

Quality portraiture is based upon a methodology of light that brings out the shape and roundness of the face. It is also equally based upon the level of emotion and feeling that a photographer can elicit from a subject. The WALL OF LIGHT helps achieve both.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Dean Collins. DEAN COLLINS WORKSHOP. San Diego California. 1985.

Authur L. Guptill. SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL. Pencil Points Press,Inc., Æ1935. 17-19.

Pete A. Nicastro. ADVANCE LIGHTING & CONCEPTS STUDYBOOK. Garfield, New Jersey: Photography

Learning Systems. 1975, 138-143.

Alexander Taffell, Ph.D. PHYSICS - ITS METHODS AND MEANING. Chicago : Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1965, 172